Ghana is experiencing rapid urbanisation, with an increasing proportion of its population living in cities. In 2020, 50.4 % of the population resided in urban areas, a significant rise from 38.4 % in 2000 (Korah et al., 2025). Rapid and unplanned urbanisation has outpaced the ability of governments to establish an efficient urban transport system, exerting pressure on transport systems in sub-Saharan African cities (Gutu Sakketa, 2023). In the case of Ghana, urbanisation continues to overwhelm existing transport systems, leading to congestion, limited accessibility and reliance on inefficient, informal paratransit services (Adom-Asamoah et al., 2021).

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